Blood lead levels in the general population and vulnerable sub-populations and related risk factors for lead exposure in Canada

Lead has long been recognized as a harmful environmental pollutant. Lead exposure can cause adverse effects on almost every organ or system in the human body. High levels of lead can cause damage to the kidneys, heart, bones, reproductive organs, the nervous, gastrointestinal, and immune systems (ATSRD, 2020). Adverse health effects of lead exposure have been reported most in vulnerable populations, including children and pregnant women (WHO, 2010; Health Canada, 2013a). In children, the central nervous system appears to be the most sensitive target of lead exposure (Bellinger, 2008; Needleman, 2004). Exposure to lead can result in behavioral problems, lower IQ values, hearing loss, learning disabilities, and other neuropsychological deficits (Lanphear et al., 2005; Froehlich et al., 2009; Health Canada, 2013a; Liu et al., 2014; Reuben et al., 2017; ATSRD, 2020; Heidari et al., 2022). In pregnant women, lead can cross the placenta and damage the developing fetal nervous system (Schnaas et al., 2006). Effects on pregnancy outcomes such as preterm birth, low birth weight, and congenital abnormalities have also been reported in the literature (Flora et al., 2012; Edwards, 2014; Fisher et al., 2023). Additionally, lead exposure has also been shown as a risk factor for preeclampsia (Poropat et al., 2018; Borghese et al., 2023).