Learning by writing: The influence of handwriting and typing on novel word learning in typically developing readers and readers with dyslexia

Background: Writing-based spelling is crucial for acquiring written word knowledge, contributing to form lexical representations that integrate motor information. Modern educational settings incorporate multiple modalities, with typing increasingly complementing handwriting. However, evidence on their relative effectiveness in supporting orthographic and semantic learning, particularly when these processes are impaired, remains limited. Aims: This study examines the impact of the two writing modalities on the learning of orthographic and semantic information in typically developing (TD) children and those with developmental dyslexia (DD). Sample: Eighteen Italian middle school students with DD and eighteen age-matched TD readers participated. Methods: Participants learned a set of nonwords, varying in transcription regularity, paired with images, either through typing or handwriting. Their spelling and nonword-image association skills were then tested. Recorded metrics included accuracy, writing duration during learning and spelling tasks, and reaction time in the nonword-image mapping task. Results: TD children benefited from both writing modalities during learning. Crucially, the DD group showed better spelling and nonword-image association performance when learning occurred through typing. Accuracy in retrieving orthographic and semantic information was not significantly affected by the time spent handwriting or typing during learning. Performance differences based on transcription complexity provided insights into the extent to which children internalized lexical representations. Conclusions: Both writing modalities can support orthographic and semantic learning, but the complex graphomotor demands of handwriting may hinder novel word acquisition in dyslexic individuals. Incorporating typing into educational strategies could alleviate the cognitive load associated with handwriting and enhance word retention for these students.